1. 002：以太坊简介|《ETH原理与智能合约开发》笔记

待字闺中开发了一门区块链方面的课程：《深入浅出ETH原理与智能合约开发》，马良老师讲授。此文集记录我的学习笔记。

课程共8节课。其中，前四课讲ETH原理，后四课讲智能合约。
第一课分为四部分：

这篇文章是第一部分的学习笔记：以太坊简介。

以太坊是目前公认的区块链2.0，相比于区块链1.0（比特币），其最大的特点是引入了智能合约，从而从单一的数字加密 Token 技术转化为一个区块链分布式应用的平台。以太坊本身不包含任何具体的应用，它主要是提供基础平台和工具，使得开发者可以在其基础之上开发出各种各样的应用。可以说，以太坊有着巨大的潜力，它最终可能会发展出分布式、自动化、自组织的最高形态。

第一，我们可以通过学习以太坊的技术，领会区块链技术发展的脉络，改进的思路/路径，从而紧跟区块链技术发展的前沿，预测下一步的趋势。
第二，DAPP（分布式应用）生态系统目前的发展也是蒸蒸日上，蓬勃发展，据不完全统计，现在有数百种应用之多，显而易见的，对于开发人员的需求也是水涨船高，需要大量的开发人员。目前非常有名的应用有加密猫、各类侧链应用、ERC20 Token如币安币火币等等。

2013年，创始人 Vitalik Buterin 针对比特币存在的一些问题以及局限性，提出把“智能合约”构想应用于区块链领域，希望打造一个基于区块链的多方计算的智能化通用平台，并通过比特币融资进行开发。

2014年，以太坊基金会在瑞士成立，管理并运营整个项目。

前5大矿池占83%的算力，很集中。

目前大约有16000个全节点，其中，美国5461（34%），中国1839（11.5%），俄罗斯963（6%），德国920（5.7%），加拿大875（5.45%）。全节点每天都有动态变化。分布情况也反映出各个国家的参与热度。

2. 以太坊多节点私有链部署

假设两台电脑A和B
要求：
1、两台电脑要在一个网络中，能ping通
2、两个节点使用相同的创世区块文件
3、禁用ipc;同时使用参数--nodiscover
4、networkid要相同，端口号可以不同

1.4 搭建私有链
1.4.1 创建目录和genesis.json文件
创建私有链根目录./testnet
创建数据存储目录./testnet/data0
创建创世区块配置文件./testnet/genesis.json

1.4.2 初始化操作
cd ./eth_test
geth --datadir data0 init genesis.json

1.4.3 启动私有节点

1.4.4 创建账号
personal.newAccount()
1.4.5 查看账号
eth.accounts
1.4.6 查看账号余额
eth.getBalance(eth.accounts[0])
1.4.7 启动&停止挖矿
启动挖矿：
miner.start(1)
其中 start 的参数表示挖矿使用的线程数。第一次启动挖矿会先生成挖矿所需的 DAG 文件，这个过程有点慢，等进度达到 100% 后，就会开始挖矿，此时屏幕会被挖矿信息刷屏。
停止挖矿，在 console 中输入：
miner.stop()
挖到一个区块会奖励5个以太币，挖矿所得的奖励会进入矿工的账户，这个账户叫做 coinbase，默认情况下 coinbase 是本地账户中的第一个账户，可以通过 miner.setEtherbase() 将其他账户设置成 coinbase。

1.4.8 转账
目前，账户 0 已经挖到了 3 个块的奖励，账户 1 的余额还是0：

我们要从账户 0 向账户 1 转账，所以要先解锁账户 0，才能发起交易：

发送交易，账户 0 -> 账户 1：

需要输入密码 123456

此时如果没有挖矿，用 txpool.status 命令可以看到本地交易池中有一个待确认的交易，可以使用 eth.getBlock("pending", true).transactions 查看当前待确认交易。

使用 miner.start() 命令开始挖矿：
miner.start(1);admin.sleepBlocks(1);miner.stop();

新区块挖出后，挖矿结束，查看账户 1 的余额，已经收到了账户 0 的以太币：
web3.fromWei(eth.getBalance(eth.accounts[1]),'ether')

用同样的genesis.json初始化操作
cd ./eth_test
geth --datadir data1 init genesis.json

启动私有节点一,修改 rpcport 和port

可以通过 admin.addPeer() 方法连接到其他节点，两个节点要要指定相同的 chainID。

假设有两个节点：节点一和节点二，chainID 都是 1024，通过下面的步骤就可以从节点二连接到节点一。

首先要知道节点一的 enode 信息，在节点一的 JavaScript console 中执行下面的命令查看 enode 信息：

admin.nodeInfo.enode
" enode://@[::]:30303 "

然后在节点二的 JavaScript console 中执行 admin.addPeer()，就可以连接到节点一：

addPeer() 的参数就是节点一的 enode 信息，注意要把 enode 中的 [::] 替换成节点一的 IP 地址。连接成功后，节点一就会开始同步节点二的区块，同步完成后，任意一个节点开始挖矿，另一个节点会自动同步区块，向任意一个节点发送交易，另一个节点也会收到该笔交易。

通过 admin.peers 可以查看连接到的其他节点信息，通过 net.peerCount 可以查看已连接到的节点数量。

除了上面的方法，也可以在启动节点的时候指定 --bootnodes 选项连接到其他节点。 bootnode 是一个轻量级的引导节点，方便联盟链的搭建 下一节讲 通过 bootnode 自动找到节点

参考： https://cloud.tencent.com/developer/article/1332424

3. 如何看待以太坊ETH2.0

我个人不是特别看好以太坊2.0。

以目前以太坊的发展情况来看，以太坊已经成为了世界上最大的一条公链，这点毫无疑问。伴随着以太坊得进一步发展，我们会发现区块链行业也取得了长足的进步。

一、我先讲一下关于目前以太坊的现状。

以太坊在这一次牛市中非常亮眼，换而言之，这一次的牛市就是因为以太坊上面的应用而拉起的。目前的以太坊有几个困境：第1个困境是交易费率太高，吓跑了很多人。第2个困境是交易速度太慢，网络拥堵问题非常严重。第3个困境是交易相对繁琐，其他公链显然要优于以太坊。这正是以太坊需要破局的地方，当以太坊升级到2.0以后，这些问题都会相应解决。

4. 011：Ethash算法|《ETH原理与智能合约开发》笔记

待字闺中开发了一门区块链方面的课程：《深入浅出ETH原理与智能合约开发》，马良老师讲授。此文集记录我的学习笔记。

课程共8节课。其中，前四课讲ETH原理，后四课讲智能合约。
第四课分为三部分：

这篇文章是第四课第一部分的学习笔记：Ethash算法。

这节课介绍的是以太坊非常核心的挖矿算法。

在介绍Ethash算法之前，先讲一些背景知识。其实区块链技术主要是解决一个共识的问题，而共识是一个层次很丰富的概念，这里把范畴缩小，只讨论区块链中的共识。

什么是共识？

在区块链中，共识是指哪个节点有记账权。网络中有多个节点，理论上都有记账权，首先面临的问题就是，到底谁来记帐。另一个问题，交易一定是有顺序的，即谁在前，前在后。这样可以解决双花问题。区块链中的共识机制就是解决这两个问题，谁记帐和交易的顺序。

什么是工作量证明算法

为了决定众多节点中谁来记帐，可以有多种方案。其中，工作量证明就让节点去算一个哈希值，满足难度目标值的胜出。这个过程只能通过枚举计算，谁算的快，谁获胜的概率大。收益跟节点的工作量有关，这就是工作量证明算法。

为什么要引入工作量证明算法？

Hash Cash 由Adam Back 在1997年发表，中本聪首次在比特币中应用来解决共识问题。

它最初用来解决垃圾邮件问题。

其主要设计思想是通过暴力搜索，找到一种Block头部组合（通过调整nonce）使得嵌套的SHA256单向散列值输出小于一个特定的值（Target）。

这个算法是计算密集型算法，一开始从CPU挖矿，转而为GPU，转而为FPGA，转而为ASIC，从而使得算力变得非常集中。

算力集中就会带来一个问题，若有一个矿池的算力达到51%，则它就会有作恶的风险。这是比特币等使用工作量证明算法的系统的弊端。而以太坊则吸取了这个教训，进行了一些改进，诞生了Ethash算法。

Ethash算法吸取了比特币的教训，专门设计了非常不利用计算的模型，它采用了I/O密集的模型，I/O慢，计算再快也没用。这样，对专用集成电路则不是那么有效。

该算法对GPU友好。一是考虑如果只支持CPU，担心易被木马攻击；二是现在的显存都很大。

轻型客户端的算法不适于挖矿，易于验证；快速启动

算法中，主要依赖于Keccake256 。

数据源除了传统的Block头部，还引入了随机数阵列DAG（有向非循环图）（Vitalik提出）

种子值很小。根据种子值生成缓存值，缓存层的初始值为16M，每个世代增加128K。

在缓存层之下是矿工使用的数据值，数据层的初始值是1G，每个世代增加8M。整个数据层的大小是128Bytes的素数倍。

框架主要分为两个部分，一是DAG的生成，二是用Hashimoto来计算最终的结果。

DAG分为三个层次，种子层，缓存层，数据层。三个层次是逐渐增大的。

种子层很小，依赖上个世代的种子层。

缓存层的第一个数据是根据种子层生成的，后面的根据前面的一个来生成，它是一个串行化的过程。其初始大小是16M，每个世代增加128K。每个元素64字节。

数据层就是要用到的数据，其初始大小1G，现在约2个G，每个元素128字节。数据层的元素依赖缓存层的256个元素。

整个流程是内存密集型。

首先是头部信息和随机数结合在一起，做一个Keccak运算，获得初始的单向散列值Mix[0]，128字节。然后，通过另外一个函数，映射到DAG上，获取一个值，再与Mix[0]混合得到Mix[1]，如此循环64次，得到Mix[64]，128字节。

接下来经过后处理过程，得到 mix final 值，32字节。（这个值在前面两个小节《 009：GHOST协议 》、《 010：搭建测试网络 》都出现过）

再经过计算，得出结果。把它和目标值相比较，小于则挖矿成功。

难度值大，目标值小，就越难（前面需要的 0 越多）。

这个过程也是挖矿难，验证容易。

为防止矿机，mix function函数也有更新过。

难度公式见课件截图。

根据上一个区块的难度，来推算下一个。

从公式看出，难度由三部分组成，首先是上一区块的难度，然后是线性部分，最后是非线性部分。

非线性部分也叫难度炸弹，在过了一个特定的时间节点后，难度是指数上升。如此设计，其背后的目的是，在以太坊的项目周期中，在大都会版本后的下一个版本中，要转换共识，由POW变为POW、POS混合型的协议。基金会的意思可能是使得挖矿变得没意思。

难度曲线图显示，2017年10月，难度有一个大的下降，奖励也由5个变为3个。

本节主要介绍了Ethash算法，不足之处，请批评指正。

5. 走进以太坊网络

目录

术语“以太坊节点”是指以某种方式与以太坊网络交互的程序。从简单的手机钱包应用程序到存储整个区块链副本的计算机，任何设备均可扮演以太坊节点。

所有节点都以某种方式充当通信点，但以太坊网络中的节点分为多种类型。

与比特币不同，以太坊找不到任何程序作为参考实施方案。在比特币生态系统中， 比特币核心 是主要节点软件，以太坊黄皮书则提出了一系列独立（但兼容）的程序。目前最流行的是Geth和Parity。

若要以允许独立验证区块链数据的方式连接以太坊网络，则应使用之前提到的软件运行全节点。

该软件将从其他节点下载区块，并验证其所含交易的正确性。软件还将运行调用的所有智能合约，确保接收的信息与其他节点相同。如果一切按计划运行，我们可以认为所有节点设备均存储相同的区块链副本。

全节点对于以太坊的运行至关重要。如果没有遍布全球的众多节点，网络将丧失其抗审查性与去中心化特性。

通过运行全节点，您可以直接为网络的 健康 和安全发展贡献一份力量。然而，全节点通常需要使用独立的机器完成运行和维护。对于无法（或单纯不愿）运行全节点的用户，轻节点是更好的选择。

顾名思义，轻节点均为轻量级设备，可显著降低资源和空间占用率。手机或笔记本电脑等便携式设备均可作为轻节点。然而，降低开销也要付出代价：轻节点无法完全实现自给自足。它们无法与整条区块链同步，需要全节点提供相关信息。

轻节点备受商户、服务供应商和用户的青睐。在不必使用全节点并且运行成本过高的情况下，它们广泛应用于支收付款。

挖矿节点既可以是全节点客户端，也可以是轻节点客户端。“挖矿节点”这个术语的使用方式与比特币生态系统不同，但依然应用于识别参与者。

如需参与以太坊挖矿，必须使用一些附加硬件。最常见的做法是构建 矿机 。用户通过矿机将多个GPU（图形处理器）连接起来，高速计算哈希数据。

矿工可以选择两种挖矿方案：单独挖矿或加入矿池。 单独挖矿 表示矿工独自创建区块。如果成功，则独享挖矿奖励。如果加入 矿池 ，众多矿工的哈希算力会结合起来。出块速度得以提升，但挖矿奖励将由众多矿工共享。

区块链最重要的特性之一就是“开放访问”。这表明任何人均可运行以太坊节点，并通过验证交易和区块强化网络。

与比特币相似，许多企业都提供即插即用的以太坊节点。如果只想启动并运行单一节点，这种设备无疑是最佳选择，缺点是必须为便捷性额外付费。

如前文所述，以太坊中存在众多不同类型的节点软件实施方案，例如Geth和Parity。若要运行个人节点，必须掌握所选实施方案的安装流程。

除非运行名为 归档节点 的特殊节点，否则消费级笔记本电脑足以支持以太坊全节点正常运行。不过，最好不要使用日常工作设备，因为节点会严重拖慢运行速度。

运行个人节点时，建议设备始终在线。倘若节点离线，再次联网时可能耗费大量的时间进行同步。因此，最好选择造价低廉并且易于维护的设备。您甚至可以通过Raspberry Pi运行轻节点。

随着网络即将过渡到权益证明机制，以太坊挖矿不再是最安全的长期投资方式。过渡成功后，以太坊矿工只能将挖矿设备转入其他网络或直接变卖。

鉴于过渡尚未完成，参与以太坊挖矿仍需使用特殊硬件（例如GPU或ASIC）。若要获得可观收益，则必须定制矿机并寻找电价低廉的矿场。此外，还需创建以太坊钱包并配置相应的挖矿软件。这一切都会耗费大量的时间和资金。在参与挖矿前，请认真考量自己能否应对各种挑战。（国内严禁挖矿，切勿以身试法）

ProgPow代表 程序化工作量证明 。这是以太坊挖矿算法Ethash的扩展方案，旨在提升GPU的竞争力，使其超过ASIC。

在比特币和以太坊社区，抗ASIC多年来一直是饱受争议的话题。在比特币网络中，ASIC已经成为主要的挖矿力量。

在以太坊中，ASIC并不是主流，相当一部分矿工仍然使用GPU。然而，随着越来越多的公司将以太坊ASIC矿机引入市场，这种情况很快就会改变。然而，ASIC到底存在什么问题呢？

一方面，ASIC明显削弱网络的去中心化。如果GPU矿工无法盈利，不得不停止挖矿，哈希率最终就会集中在少数矿工手中。此外，ASIC芯片的开发成本相当昂贵，坐拥开发能力与资源的公司屈指可数。这种现状有可能导致以太坊挖矿产业集中在少数公司手中，形成一定程度的行业垄断。

自2018年以来，ProgPow的集成一直饱受争议。有些人认为，它有益于以太坊生态系统的 健康 发展。另一些人则持反对态度，认为它可能导致硬分叉。随着权益证明机制的到来，ProgPoW能否应用于网络仍然有待观察。

以太坊与比特币是一样，均为开源平台。所有人都可以参与协议开发，或基于协议构建应用程序。事实上，以太坊也是区块链领域目前最大的开发者社区。

Andreas Antonopoulos和Gavin Wood出品的 Mastering Ethereum ，以及Ethereum.org推出的 开发者资源 等都是新晋开发者理想的入门之选。

智能合约的概念于20世纪90年代首次提出。其在区块链中的应用带来了一系列全新挑战。2014年由Gavin Wood提出的Solidity已经成为开发以太坊智能合约的主要编程语言，其语法与Java、JavaScript以及C++类似。

从本质上讲，使用Solidity语言，开发者可以编写在分解后可由以太坊虚拟机(EVM)解析的指令。您可以通过Solidity GitHub详细了解其工作原理。

其实，Solidity语言并非以太坊开发者的唯一选择。Vyper也是一种热门的开发语言，其语法更接近Python。

6. 什么是以太币/以太坊ETH

以太坊英文名Ethereum，简称ETH，是最近被热炒的虚拟投资币种。被称为是全球第二大市值的数字货币，仅次于比特币。

以太币是以太坊的一种数字代币，是因为以太坊开放的需要使用代币——以太币ETH来支撑应用。以太坊同样可以在交易平台交易买卖。简单的来说，以太坊（Ethereum）是一个平台和一种编程语言，使开发人员能够建立和发布下一代分布式应用。
以太坊（Ethereum）可以用来编程、担保和交易，也可以用来组织投票，域名买卖，金融交易平台，线上众筹，管理公司，
制定合同和大部分的协议，还能集成硬件的智能资产。

以太坊的价格之所以能够飙升，不仅得益于以太坊社区的推广宣传，更重要的是虚拟货币投资者们正在寻找替换比特币的投资产品。

比特币受国内央行的监管、申请ETF上市被拒等一系列问题，导致投资者们对比特币的前景看淡。而此时以太坊的出现、宣传推广，正受到这些虚拟币投资者的青睐！

BtcTrade平台（比特币交易网）www.btctrade.com作为国内最大最靠谱的交易平台，早在11月份就上线以太坊交易。上线时的以太坊在50元左右，如今已涨至300元一枚，实足惊人！以太坊ETH的前景到底如何，能否像比特币一样获得如此的关注，拭目以待！

7. 一个以太坊节点最多可以有 几个账户地址

一个以太坊节点最多可以有 几个账户地址？
答：一般只有一个账户地址，否则会出现错误的！区块链本身就是具有唯一性的，如果有多个账户地址在一个节点上，就违反了区块链的根本！

8. 一文读懂以太坊—ETH2.0，是否值得长期持有

这几天一直在看关于ETH伦敦升级方面的资料，简单的聊一下，在加密货币的世界里，无论是投资机构、区块链应用开发者、矿机商，还是个人投资者、硬件供应商、 游戏 行业从业者等等，提起以太坊，或多或少都会有一些了解。

一方面取决于以太坊代币 ETH 本身的造富效应。从 2014 年首次发行以来，投资回报率已经超过 7400 倍。

另一方面，以太坊作为应用最广泛的去中心应用编程平台，引来无数开发者在其之上开发应用。这些应用不仅产生了巨大的商业价值，伴随 DEFI 生态、NFT 生态、DAO 生态蓬勃发展，也给 ETH 带来了更多使用者。

随着“伦敦升级计划”临近，ETH 再次聚集所有人的关注目光。

以太坊 2.0 到底是什么？包含哪些升级？目前进展如何？

以太坊 2.0 到来，会对现有以太坊生态的去中心化应用产生哪些影响？

ETH 是否值得持续投资？看完相信你会有自己的判断。

如果将搭建应用比作造房子，那么以太坊就提供了墙面、屋顶、地板等模块，用户只需像搭积木一样把房子搭起来，因此在以太坊上建立应用的成本和速度都大大改善。以太坊的出现，迅速吸引了大量开发者进入以太坊的世界编写出各类去中心应用，极大丰富人们对去中心应用场景的需求。

以太坊应用开发模型示意

以太坊与ETH

现有市场的加密货币，只是在区块链技术应用在某一场景下的单一代币。

以太坊也不例外，它的完整项目名称是“下一代智能合约与去中心化应用平台”，Ether（以太币）是其原生加密货币，简称 ETH。

ETH 除了可以用来与各种类型数字资产之间进行有效交换，还提供支付交易费用的机制，即我们现在做链上操作时所支付的 GAS 费用。GAS 费用机制的出现，即保护了以太坊网络上创建的应用不会被恶意程序随意滥用，又因为 GAS 收入归矿工所有，让更多的用户参与到以太坊网络的记账当中成为矿工，进一步维护了以太坊网络安全与生态发展。

与 BTC 不同的是，ETH 并没有采用 SHA256 挖矿算法，避免了整个挖矿生态出现由 ASIC（专用集成电路）矿机主导以至于大部分算力被中心化机构控制所带来的系统性风险。

以太坊最初采用的是 PoW（Proof of Work）的工作量证明机制，人们需要通过工作量证明以获取手续费回报。我们经常听说矿工使用显卡挖矿，他们做的就是 POW 工作量证明。显卡越多，算力越大，那么工作量就越大，收入也就越高。

当前，整个以太坊网络的总算力大约为 870.26 TH/s，用我们熟悉的消费级显卡来对比，英伟达 RTX 3080 的显卡算力大约为 92-93 MH/s，以太坊网络相当于 936 万张 3080 显卡算力的总和。

以太坊白皮书内非常明确提到之后会将 PoW 工作证明的账本机制升级为 POS （Proof of Stake）权益证明的账本机制。

ETH经济模型

与 BTC 总量 2100 万枚不同，ETH 的总量并没有做上限，而是在首次预售的 ETH 数量基础上每年增发，增发数量为 0.26x（x 为发售总量）。

但也不用担心 ETH 会无限通胀下去，长期来看，每年增发币的数量与每年因死亡或者粗心原因遗失币的数量大致相同，ETH 的“货币供应增长率”是趋近于零的。

ETH 分配模型包含早期购买者，早期贡献值，长期捐赠与矿工收益，具体分配比例如下表。

现在每年将有 60,102,216 * 0.26 = 15,626,576 个 ETH 被矿工挖出，转成 PoS 后，每年产出的 ETH 将减少。

目前，市场上流通的 ETH 总量约为 116,898,848 枚，总市值约为 2759 亿美元。

以太坊发展历程

1. 边境阶段（2015年）：上线后不久进行了第一次分叉，调整未来挖矿的难度。此版本处于实验阶段，技术并未成熟，最初只能让少部分开发者参与挖矿，智能合约也仅面向开发者开发应用使用，并没有用户参与，以太坊网络处于萌芽期。

边境阶段 ETH 价格：1.24 美元。

2. 家园阶段（2016年）：以太坊主网于 2016 年 3 月进行了第二次分叉，发布了第一个稳定版本。此版本是第一个成熟的正式版本，采用 100% PoW 证明，引入难度炸弹，随着区块链数量的增加，挖矿难度呈指数增长，网络的性能大幅提升，以太坊项目也进入到快速成长期。在”家园“版本里，还发生了著名的”The DAO 攻击事件“，以太坊被社区投票硬分叉为以太坊（ETH）与以太经典（ETC）两条链，V 神站在了 ETH 这边。

家园阶段 ETH 价格：12.50 美元。

3. 都会阶段（2017~2019年）：都会的开发又分为三个阶段，升级分成了三次分叉，分别是 2017 年 10 月的“拜占庭”、2019 年 2 月底的“君士坦丁堡“、以及 2019 年 12 月的“伊斯坦布尔”。这些升级主要改善智能合约的编写、提高安全性、加入难度炸弹以及一些核心架构的修改，以协助未来从工作量证明转至权益证明。

在都会阶段，以太坊网络正式显现出其威力，正式进入成熟期。智能合约让不同链上的加密货币可以互相交易，ERC-20 也在 2017 代币发行的标准，成千上万个项目在以太坊网络进行募资，被称作“首次代币发行（ICO）”，相信很多币圈的老人都是被当时 ICO 造富效应带进来的。到 2019 年，随着DeFi 生态的崛起，金融产品正式成为以太链上最大的产业。

都会阶段 ETH 价格：151.06 美元。

4. 宁静阶段（2020-2023年）：与都会分三阶段开发相同，宁静阶段目前预计分成三次分叉：柏林（已完成）、伦敦（即将到来）、以及后面的第三次分叉。“宁静”阶段又称为“以太坊 2.0”，是项目的最终阶段，以太坊将从工作量证明方式正式转向权益证明，并开发第二层扩容方案，提高整个网络的运行效率。

宁静阶段可以说是以太坊网络的集大成之作，如果说前个三阶段只是让以太坊的愿景展现的实验平台，宁静阶段之后的以太坊，将正式成为完全体，不仅有完备的生态应用，超级快的处理速度，众多网络协同发展，而且 PoS 机制会非常节约能源，真正代表了区块链技术逐渐走向成熟的标志。

宁静阶段 ETH 价格：2021 年 4 月 15 日完成的柏林阶段，当天价格为 2454 美元。

即将到来的伦敦协议升级

以太坊生态

以太坊的生态发展，从属性划可分为两大类：一是以太坊网络生态应用建设，二是以太坊网络扩容建设。两者相互融合，互相成就，应用需要更健壮强大的网络作为承载，网络需要功能完善的应用场景服务用户。

先说应用生态，以太坊的生态我们又可以分为以下几大类：

1. 去中心化自制组织（DAO）生态

什么是去中心化自制组织？还是以我们熟悉的比特币举例：比特币目前市值七千多亿美金，在全球资产市值类排名第九，但比特币并不是某一公司发布的产品，也没有特定公司组织招聘人员进行维护。比特币现有的一切，都源于比特币持有者、比特币矿工自发形成的分布式组织，他们通过投票方式规划比特币发展路线，自发参与维护比特币程序与网络 —这仅仅因为只要拥有比特币，所有人都是比特币网络建设中的受益者，一切维护都源于自身的利益关系。

比特币的发明与成功运行，突破了由荷兰人创建、至今流行 400 多年的公司商业架构，开创出一种全新的、无组织架构的、全球分布式的商业模式，这就是 DAO。

再说回以太坊，以太坊的 DAO 可以由智能合约编写，用户自定义应用场景。简单说就是我们规定出程序执行条件与执行范围，真实世界里只要触发设定好的条件，程序就会自动执行运行，且所有过程都会在以太坊的网络上进行去中心化公开验证，不需要经过人工或者任何第三方组织机构确认。

以太坊 DAO 生态演化出许多商业场景，有慈善机构使用 DAO 建立公开透明的捐款与使用机制，有风投机构使用 DAO 建立公平分配的风险基金。

以太坊生态的很多项目都采用 DAO 自治，代表项目有：Uniswap，AAVE，MakerDAO，Compound，Decred，Dash 等。

2. 去中心化金融（DEFI）生态

在传统商业世界里，我们如果需要借钱、存钱，或者买某一公司股票，或者做企业贷款、融资，只要是进行金融活动，总离不开与银行、证券机构、会计事务所这些金融机构打交道。

而在去中心的世界里，区块链本质就是集合所有人交易记录且公开的大账本，我们可以非常容易的追溯到每一个钱包地址发生过的每一笔交易，查询到任意一个钱包地址的余额信息，从而对钱包地址里的资产做评估。

举个例子：全世界个人贷款最贵的国家是印度，印度的年轻人房贷利率目前是 8.8%，最高曾经到过 20%；与此对应，全世界个人存款利率最低的国家是日本，日本政府为了鼓励民众消费，在很长一段时间里银行存款利率是负值，日本人在银行存款不仅没有利息，还要给银行交保管费。理论上，如果日本人将自己的存款借与印度人，双方都能获得利益最大化，但现实生活中这样的场景很难发生。一是每个国家都有外汇管制，日本人的钱并不容易能给到印度人，二是印度人的信用如何日本人也不好评估，大家没有统一标准，万一借出去的钱无法归还，不能没了收益还要蒙受损失。

但在去中心的世界里，这样的事情就简单的多。

如果印度人的钱包地址里有比特币，我们就可以利用智能合约，印度人将自己的比特币质押进去，根据比特币当时的价格，系统自动给印度人一个授信额度，印度人就可以拿着这个额度去和日本人借款，并规定好还款的周期与利率。如果印度人违约，合约自动将印度人质押进去的比特币扣除，优先保障日本的权利，这样，日本人不用担心安全问题放心享受收益，印度人也有了更多的款项做为流动资金。

这个例子就是去中心金融的简单应用，实际上，这就是我们参与 DEFI 挖矿是质押理财的原理 —— 当然真正应用实现算法与场景要复杂的多。

DEFI 根据场景不同，又可以分为很多赛道，比如稳定币、预言机、AMM 交易所、衍生品、聚合器等等。

DEFI 代表项目有：Dai，Augur，Chainlink，WBTC，0x，Balance，Liquity 等。

3. 非同质化代币（NFT）生态

世界名画《蒙娜丽莎》，只有达·芬奇的原版可以展览在法国卢浮宫博物馆，哪怕现代的技术可以无比精细地复刻出来，仿品都不具备原版的收藏价值。

这就是 NFT 的应用场景。NFT是我们可以用来表示独特物品所有权的代币，它们让我们将艺术品、收藏品甚至房地产等现实事物唯一代币化。虽然文件（作品）本身是可以无限复制，但代表它们的代币在链上可以被追踪，并为买家提供所有权证明。

相比现实中实物版权、物权的双重交割相比，NFT 只需要交割描述此物品的唯一代币。NFT 作品往往存储在如 IPFS 这样的分布式存储网络里，随用随取，永不丢失，加之交割简单方便，很快吸引了大量玩家与投资者收藏转卖，NFT 出现也给艺术家提供了全新的收入模式。

类似 DEFI 生态，NFT 生态根据应用场景不同也产生了不同赛道，目前比较火热的赛道有 NFT 交易平台，NFT 游戏 平台，NFT 艺术品平台， NFT 与 DEFI 结合在一起的金融平台。

NFT 代表项目有：CryptoKitties，CryptoPunks，Meebits，Opensea，Rally，Axie Infinity，Enjin Coin，The Sandbox 等。

4. 标准代币协议（ERC-20）生态

与 NFT 非同质化代币所对应的，就是同质化代币。比如我们使用的人民币就是一种同质化代币，我们可以用人民币进行价值交换，即使序号不同也不影响其价值，如果面额相同，不同的钞票序号对持有者来说没有区别。

BTC，ETH 和所有我们熟知的加密货币，都属于同质化代币。同种类的一个比特币和另一个比特币没有任何区别，规格相同，具有统一性。在交易中，只需关注代币交接的数量即可，其价值可能会根据交换的时间间隔而改变，但其本质并没有发生变化。

以太坊的 ERC-20 就是定义这种代币的标准协议，任何人都可以使用 ERC-20 协议，通过几行代码，发布自己在以太坊网络上的加密货币。

现在，以太坊网络上运行的代币种类有上百万个，上边提到的项目，大多也在以太坊网络中发布了自己的同质化代币。

ERC-20 代表项目有：USDT，USDC，WBTC 等。

以太坊网络扩容性

我们先引入一个概念：区块链的不可能三角，即无论何种方法，我们都无法同时达到可扩展、去中心化、安全，三者只能得其二。

这其实很好理解，如果我们要去中心化和安全，就需要更多有节点参与网络进行验证，从而导致验证人增多、网络效率降低，扩展性下降。网络性能建设就是在三者之间找到平衡点。

用数据举例，目前比特币可处理转账 7 笔 / 秒，以太坊是 25 笔 / 秒，而 VISA 平均为 4500 笔 / 秒，峰值则达每秒上万笔。这种业务处理能力的差别，我们就可以简单理解为是「吞吐量」的差距。而想要提高吞吐量，则需要扩展区块链的业务处理能力，这就是所谓的扩展性。

根据优化方法不同，以太坊网络性能扩容方案可以分为：

1. Layer 1 链上扩展，所有交易都保留在以太坊上的扩展解决方案，具有更高的安全性。

链上扩展的本质还是改进以太坊主链本身，使整个系统拥有更高的拓展性与运行效率。一般的方法有两种，要么改变共识协议，比如 ETH 将从 PoW 转变为 PoS；要么使用分片技术，优化方法使网络具有更高效率。

2. Layer 2 链下扩展，在以太坊协议之上分层单独做各场景解决方案，具有更好的扩展性。

链下扩展可以理解为把计算、交易等业务处理场景拿到以太坊主链之外计算，最后将计算好的结果传回主链，主链只反映最终的结果而不用管过程，这样，无论多么复杂的应用都不会对主链产生影响。

我们并不需要明白具体技术实现，只需知道：相比 Layer 1 方案，Layer 2 方案网络不会干扰底层区块链协议，可以替 Layer 1 承担大部分计算工作，从而降低主网络的负担提高网络业务处理效率，是目前公认比较好的扩容方案。

以太坊2.0

终于讲到以太坊 2.0，回到主题。

通过回顾以太坊的发展 历史 ，以太坊 2.0 并不是新项目，它只是以太坊开发进程的最后一个阶段，它将由整个以太坊生态多个团队协同完成，目标是使以太坊更具可扩展性、更安全和更可持续，最终成为主流并为全人类服务。

ETH2建设目标:

1. 更具可扩展性。每秒支持 1000 次交易，以使应用程序使用起来更快、更便宜。

2. 更安全。以太坊变得更加安全，以抵御所有形式的攻击。

3. 更可持续。提高网络性能的同时减少对能源的消耗，更好地保护环境。

最重要的变化，ETH2 将从 ETH1 使用的 PoW（Proof of Work）工作量证明机制升级为 POS （Proof of Stake）权益证明机制。不再以算力做为验证方式，而是通过质押加密货币的数量做为验证手段。矿工不需要显卡也能挖矿，既节省了时间成本与电力成本，又提高了 ETH 的利用率，非常类似钱存在银行获得利息。

ETH2 主要使用的技术是分片分层技术实现整个网络扩容。

ETH2 升级将分为三个阶段进行：

1. 阶段0（正在进行）：信标链的创建与合并。信标链是 ETH2 的主链，如同人类的大脑，是 ETH2 得以运行的基础。

2. 阶段1（预计2022年）：分片链的创建与应用。当信标链与 ETH1 合并完成后，就进入分片链的开发阶段。分片链可以理解为将 ETH2 主链的整块数据按一定规则拆分存放，单独建立新链处理，用来分担主链上的数据压力，目前规划是建立 64 条分片链。

举个例子，从北京到上海，原来的交通工具只有一条公路，所有的车辆都需要在上边运行，就会非常拥挤；现在通过分片技术，多出来高铁、飞机等交通方式，分流的车辆同时到达速度更快，这就是分片链起到的作用。

分片链与主链交互示意图

3. 阶段2（预计2023年）：整个网络功能的融合。到了此阶段，整个系统的功能全面开始融合，分片链的功能会更加强大，新的处理机制开始支持账户、智能合约、开发工具的创建，新的生态应用等。

此阶段是以太坊网络的最终形态，网络性能得到全面提升，生态应用全面爆发。但要服务全人类，ETH2 每秒 1000 次的交易效率显然还是远远不够，以太坊也会为它的目标持续优化下去。

ETH2对于大家有什么影响？

1. 对于以太坊生态开发者。ETH2 在部署应用的时候，是需要选择应用在哪条分片网络进行部署，造成这种差异的原因是跨分片通信不同步，这就意味着开发者需要根据自己发展计划做不同的组合。

2. 对与 ETH 持币者。ETH2 与 ETH1 数据完全同步，代币也不会有任何变化，你可以继续使用现在的钱包地址继续持有 ETH。

3. 对于矿工。虽然 PoW 与 PoS 还会并行一段时间，可以预计的 PoW 矿机的产出会越来越少，应该开始减少 PoW 矿机的投资，开始转向 PoS 机制。

4. 对于用户。ETH2 速度更快，交易手续费更低，网络体验会非常好，唯一值得注意的是，由于 Dapp 部署在不同的分片网络上，可能需要手动选择应用的网络选项。

ETH是否值得投资？

ETH 是除了 BTC 以外市场的风向标，明确了解 ETH2 非常有助于我们理解其他区块链项目，理解二级市场。

简单总结几个点吧：

1. 通过以太坊的项目分析，我们可以清晰地看到：在比特币之后，以太坊项目的发展史就是目前区块链应用生态的发展史。无论 DEFI 生态，NFT 生态，DAO 生态还是代币、合约、协议生态，其实在以太坊发布白皮书时已有预见，后来出现的项目，都是围绕以太坊做验证。

2. 以太坊的联合创始人里，只有 V 神还在为以太坊事业做贡献，但这并不影响以以太坊繁荣发展。以太坊初始团队只是创建了它，后续的发展是社区、开发者、矿工与用户共同建立的结果，现在的以太坊早已不是某一个人的思维，它是所有以太坊生态参与者共同的结晶，它属于全人类。

3. 以太坊在过去的几年一直沿着既定的开发轨迹发展，虽然中途一度出现过危机，以太坊“被死亡”了好几百次，以太坊还是顽强的发展下来，并且拥有了繁荣生态。ETH2 还要两三年时间才能落地，中间也充满变数，比如其他的公链抢占先机，但可以预见，ETH2 后的以太坊会更加健壮。

4. 不要在抱有任何 BTC 会死亡，区块链行业会消失这样的伪命题。BTC、ETH 让我们看到了突破原有公司组织架构，一种全新无组织架构的商业模式存在，这种商业模式显然更符合这个时代的发展需求，无论项目地发起团队在不在，无论各国政府如何打压，只要技术对人类有贡献，就会由人员自发组织维护，区块链技术是革命。

5. ETH2 的上线，短期看 PoW 奖励与 PoS 奖励并行，可能会让 ETH 总通胀率短期内飙升，长期看 ETH 通胀率始终保持平衡。加上 ETH 本身的生态与应用场景，ETH是值得投资的，目前看不到有其他公链代替以太坊公链的可能性，ETH2 的上线，甚至会对其他公链造成“虹吸效应”，万链归一。

#比特币[超话]# #数字货币#

9. 以太坊最低价格是多少

以太坊在经历了近两年的币圈熊市后，币价现在跌至900多元人民币，目前下跌趋势让在延续。做空以太坊是现在比较好的交易策略。目前可以做空的数字货币交易所如：币安、火币网、比特网。

1. 002: Introduction to Ethereum | Notes on "ETH Principles and Smart Contract Development"

Taizi Guizhong has developed a course on blockchain: "ETH Principles and Smart Contracts in a Simple and Easy Way" Contract Development", taught by teacher Ma Liang. This collection records my study notes.

The course has a total of 8 lessons. Among them, the first four lessons are about ETH principles, and the last four lessons are about smart contracts.
The first lesson is divided into four parts:

This article is the study notes of the first part: Introduction to Ethereum.

Ethereum is currently recognized as Blockchain 2.0. Compared with Blockchain 1.0 (Bitcoin), its biggest feature is the introduction of smart contracts, thus transforming from a single digital encryption Token technology. It is a platform for blockchain distributed applications. Ethereum itself does not contain any specific applications. It mainly provides basic platforms and tools so that developers can develop a variety of applications based on it. It can be said that Ethereum has huge potential, and it may eventually develop the highest form of distribution, automation, and self-organization.

First, we can learn the technology of Ethereum, understand the development context of blockchain technology, and improve ideas/paths, so as to keep up with the forefront of blockchain technology development and predict the next step. trend.
Second, the current development of the DAPP (distributed application) ecosystem is also booming. According to incomplete statistics, there are now hundreds of applications. It is obvious that the demand for developers is also rising, and the need Lots of developers. Currently, very famous applications include CryptoKitties, various side chain applications, ERC20 Tokens such as Binance Coin, Huobi, etc.

In 2013, founder Vitalik Buterin proposed to apply the concept of "smart contracts" to the blockchain field in response to some problems and limitations of Bitcoin, hoping to create a multi-party computing system based on blockchain. An intelligent universal platform, developed through Bitcoin financing.

In 2014, the Ethereum Foundation was established in Switzerland to manage and operate the entire project.

The top five mining pools account for 83% of the computing power, which is very concentrated.

There are currently about 16,000 full nodes, including 5,461 in the United States (34%), 1,839 in China (11.5%), 963 in Russia (6%), 920 in Germany (5.7%), and 875 in Canada (5.45 %). Full nodes have dynamic changes every day. The distribution also reflects the participation intensity of each country.

2. Ethereum multi-node private chain deployment

Assume two computers A and B
Requirements:
1. The two computers must be in the same network , can ping
2. Both nodes use the same genesis block file
3. Disable ipc; use the parameter --nodiscover at the same time
4. The networkid must be the same, but the port number can be different
< br /> 1.4 Build a private chain
1.4.1 Create directory and genesis.json file
Create private chain root directory./testnet
Create data storage directory./testnet/data0
Create the genesis block configuration file ./testnet/genesis.json

1.4.2 Initialization operation
cd ./eth_test
geth --datadir data0 init genesis.json
/>
1.4.3 Start private node

1.4.4 Create account
personal.newAccount()
1.4.5 View account
eth.accounts
1.4.6 View account balance
eth.getBalance(eth.accounts[0])
1.4.7 Start & stop mining
Start mining:
miner .start(1)
The start parameter indicates the number of threads used for mining. When you start mining for the first time, you will first generate the DAG file required for mining. This process is a bit slow. When the progress reaches 100%, mining will start. At this time, the screen will be refreshed with mining information.
To stop mining, enter in the console:
miner.stop()
If you mine a block, you will be rewarded with 5 Ether coins. The reward from mining will be entered into the miner’s account. This The account is called coinbase. By default, coinbase is the first account in the local account. You can set other accounts to coinbase through miner.setEtherbase().

1.4.8 Transfer
Currently, account 0 has mined 3 blocks of rewards, and the balance of account 1 is still 0:

We want to transfer from account 0 to Account 1 transfers money, so account 0 must be unlocked first before the transaction can be initiated:

Send transaction, account 0-> Account 1:

Need to enter password 123456

If there is no mining at this time, you can use the txpool.status command to see that there is a transaction to be confirmed in the local transaction pool , you can use eth.getBlock("pending", true).transactions to view the current pending transactions.

Use the miner.start() command to start mining:
miner.start(1);admin.sleepBlocks(1);miner.stop();

After the new block is mined, mining ends. Check the balance of account 1 and you have received the ether from account 0:
web3.fromWei(eth.getBalance(eth.accounts[1]),'ether')

Use the same genesis.json initialization operation
cd ./eth_test
geth --datadir data1 init genesis.json

Start private node one, Modify rpcport and port

You can connect to other nodes through the admin.addPeer() method. The two nodes must specify the same chainID.

Assume there are two nodes: node one and node two, with chainIDs both 1024. You can connect from node two to node one through the following steps.

First, you need to know the enode information of node one. Execute the following command in the JavaScript console of node one to view the enode information:

admin.nodeInfo.enode
" enode://@[::]:30303 "

Then execute admin.addPeer() in the JavaScript console of node two to connect to node one:

The parameter of addPeer() is the enode information of node one. Note that [::] in enode should be replaced with the IP address of node one. After the connection is successful, node one will start communicating withStep Node 2's block, after the synchronization is completed, any node starts mining, the other node will automatically synchronize the block, send a transaction to any node, and the other node will also receive the transaction.

You can view the information of other nodes connected to it through admin.peers, and you can view the number of nodes connected to it through net.peerCount.

In addition to the above method, you can also specify the --bootnodes option when starting the node to connect to other nodes. bootnode is a lightweight boot node that facilitates the construction of alliance chains. The next section will talk about automatically finding nodes through bootnode

Reference: https://cloud.tencent.com/developer/article/1332424< /p>

3. How to view Ethereum ETH2.0

I personally am not particularly optimistic about Ethereum 2.0.

Judging from the current development of Ethereum, there is no doubt that Ethereum has become the largest public chain in the world. As Ethereum develops further, we will find that the blockchain industry has also made great progress.

1. Let me first talk about the current status of Ethereum.

Ethereum is very prominent in this bull market. In other words, this bull market is caused by the applications on Ethereum. The current Ethereum has several dilemmas: The first dilemma is that the transaction fee is too high, which scares away many people. The second dilemma is that the transaction speed is too slow and the network congestion problem is very serious. The third dilemma is that transactions are relatively cumbersome, and other public chains are obviously better than Ethereum. This is where Ethereum needs to break. When Ethereum is upgraded to 2.0, these problems will be solved accordingly.

4. 011: Ethash Algorithm | Notes on "ETH Principles and Smart Contract Development"

Dai Zigui developed a course on blockchain: "ETH Principles and Smart Contracts in a Simple and Easy Way" Contract Development", taught by teacher Ma Liang. This collection records my study notes.

The course has 8 lessons in total. Among them, the first four lessons are about ETH principles, and the last four lessons are about smart contracts.
Lesson 4 is divided into three parts:

This article is the study notes for the first part of lesson 4: Ethash algorithm.

This lesson introduces the very core mining algorithm of Ethereum.

Before introducing the Ethash algorithm, let’s talk about some background knowledge. In fact, blockchain technology mainly solves a consensus problem, and consensus is a concept with rich levels. The scope is narrowed here and only the consensus in blockchain is discussed.

What is consensus?

In the blockchain,Consensus refers to which node has the accounting rights. There are multiple nodes in the network, and theoretically all have accounting rights. The first question we face is who will do the accounting. Another question is that transactions must be in order, that is, who comes first and who comes last. This solves the double-spending problem. The consensus mechanism in the blockchain is to solve these two problems, who keeps accounts and the order of transactions.

What is a proof-of-work algorithm?

In order to decide who will keep accounts among many nodes, there are many solutions. Among them, the workload proof allows the node to calculate a hash value, and the one that meets the difficulty target value wins. This process can only be calculated through enumeration. Whoever calculates faster has a higher probability of winning. The income is related to the workload of the node, which is the workload proof algorithm.

Why introduce the workload proof algorithm?

Hash Cash was published by Adam Back in 1997 and was first used by Satoshi Nakamoto in Bitcoin to solve the consensus problem.

It was originally used to solve spam problems.

Its main design idea is to find a Block header combination (by adjusting the nonce) through brute force search so that the nested SHA256 one-way hash value output is less than a specific value (Target).

This algorithm is a computationally intensive algorithm. It started from CPU mining, then switched to GPU, then to FPGA, then to ASIC, which made the computing power very concentrated.

The concentration of computing power will bring about a problem. If a mining pool’s computing power reaches 51%, it will run the risk of doing evil. This is the drawback of systems like Bitcoin that use proof-of-work algorithms. Ethereum learned this lesson, made some improvements, and gave birth to the Ethash algorithm.

The Ethash algorithm learned from the lessons of Bitcoin and specifically designed a model that does not utilize calculations. It adopts an I/O-intensive model. The I/O is slow and it is useless no matter how fast the calculation is. In this way, it is not so effective for application-specific integrated circuits.

This algorithm is GPU friendly. One is that if it only supports CPU, it will be vulnerable to Trojan attacks; the other is that the current video memory is very large.

The algorithm of the light client is not suitable for mining and is easy to verify; quick start

The algorithm mainly relies on Keccake256.

In addition to the traditional Block header, the data source also introduces a random number array DAG (Directed Acyclic Graph) (proposed by Vitalik)

The seed value is very small. The cache value is generated based on the seed value. The initial value of the cache layer is 16M and increases by 128K each generation.

Below the cache layer are the data values ​​used by the miners. The initial value of the data layer is1G, each generation increases by 8M. The size of the entire data layer is a prime multiple of 128Bytes.

The framework is mainly divided into two parts, one is the generation of DAG, and the other is using Hashimoto to calculate the final result.

DAG is divided into three levels, seed layer, cache layer and data layer. The three levels are gradually increasing.

The seed layer is very small and relies on the seed layer of the previous generation.

The first data in the cache layer is generated based on the seed layer, and the subsequent data is generated based on the previous one. It is a serialization process. Its initial size is 16M and increases by 128K each generation. 64 bytes per element.

The data layer is the data to be used. Its initial size is 1G, now it is about 2G, and each element is 128 bytes. The elements of the data layer depend on the 256 elements of the cache layer.

The entire process is memory intensive.

First, the header information and the random number are combined, and a Keccak operation is performed to obtain the initial one-way hash value Mix[0], 128 bytes. Then, map it to the DAG through another function, obtain a value, and then mix it with Mix[0] to get Mix[1]. This cycle is repeated 64 times to get Mix[64], 128 bytes.

Next, after post-processing, the mix final value is obtained, which is 32 bytes. (This value has appeared in the previous two sections "009: GHOST Protocol" and "010: Building a Test Network")

After calculation, the result is obtained. Compare it with the target value. If it is less than the target value, the mining will be successful.

The higher the difficulty value and the smaller the target value, the harder it is (the more 0s needed in front).

This process is also difficult to mine and easy to verify.

To prevent miners, the mix function has also been updated.

See the screenshot of the courseware for the difficulty formula.

Calculate the next one based on the difficulty of the previous block.

From the formula, the difficulty consists of three parts, first the difficulty of the previous block, then the linear part, and finally the non-linear part.

The non-linear part is also called the difficulty bomb. After a specific time point, the difficulty increases exponentially. The purpose behind this design is to convert the consensus from POW to a hybrid protocol of POW and POS in the next version after the Metropolis version in the Ethereum project cycle. The foundation may mean to make mining less interesting.

DifficultThe degree curve chart shows that in October 2017, the difficulty dropped significantly, and the rewards also changed from 5 to 3.

This section mainly introduces the Ethash algorithm. Please criticize and correct any shortcomings.

5. Entering the Ethereum network

Contents

The term "Ethereum node" refers to a certain A program that interacts with the Ethereum network in one way or another. Any device can act as an Ethereum node, from a simple mobile wallet app to a computer that stores a copy of the entire blockchain.

All nodes act as communication points in some way, but there are many types of nodes in the Ethereum network.

Unlike Bitcoin, Ethereum cannot find any program as a reference implementation. In the Bitcoin ecosystem, Bitcoin Core is the main node software, and the Ethereum Yellow Paper proposes a series of independent (but compatible) programs. The most popular ones currently are Geth and Parity.

To connect to the Ethereum network in a way that allows independent verification of blockchain data, you should run a full node using the previously mentioned software.

The software will download blocks from other nodes and verify the correctness of the transactions it contains. The software will also run all smart contracts called, ensuring that the information received is the same as other nodes. If everything works as planned, we can assume that all node devices store the same copy of the blockchain.

Full nodes are crucial to the operation of Ethereum. Without numerous nodes spread across the globe, the network would lose its censorship-resistant and decentralized nature.

By running a full node, you can directly contribute to the healthy and safe development of the network. However, full nodes typically require the use of independent machines for operation and maintenance. For users who are unable (or simply unwilling) to run a full node, light nodes are a better option.

As the name implies, light nodes are lightweight devices that can significantly reduce resource and space usage. Portable devices such as mobile phones or laptops can serve as light nodes. However, lowering overhead comes at a cost: light nodes cannot be fully self-sufficient. They cannot be synchronized with the entire blockchain and require full nodes to provide relevant information.

Light nodes are favored by merchants, service providers and users. They are widely used for payments where full nodes are not necessary and running costs are too high.

The mining node can be either a full node client or a light node client. The term "mining node" is used differently than in the Bitcoin ecosystem, but is still used to identify participants.

To participate in Ethereum mining, some additional hardware must be used. The most common approach is to build a miner. Users connect multiple GPUs (graphics processing units) through mining machines to calculate hash data at high speed.

Miners can choose between two mining options: mining alone or joining a mining pool. Solo mining means that miners create blocks alone. If successful, the mining rewards will be exclusive to you. If you join a mining pool, the hashing power of many miners is combined. The block generation speed is increased, but the mining rewards will be shared by many miners.

One of the most important features of blockchain is "open access". This shows that anyone can run an Ethereum node and strengthen the network by validating transactions and blocks.

Similar to Bitcoin, many businesses offer plug-and-play Ethereum nodes. This device is undoubtedly the best choice if you just want to get a single node up and running, but the downside is that you have to pay extra for convenience.

As mentioned earlier, there are many different types of node software implementations in Ethereum, such as Geth and Parity. To run a personal node, you must understand the installation process for your chosen implementation.

Unless running a special node called an archive node, a consumer-grade laptop is sufficient to support the normal operation of an Ethereum full node. However, it's best not to use your day-to-day work equipment, as nodes can seriously slow things down.

When running a personal node, it is recommended that the device is always online. If a node is offline, it may take a lot of time to synchronize when it is connected to the Internet again. Therefore, it is best to choose equipment that is cheap to build and easy to maintain. You can even run light nodes via a Raspberry Pi.

With the network about to transition to a proof-of-stake mechanism, Ethereum mining is no longer the safest way to invest long-term. After the transition is successful, Ethereum miners can only transfer their mining equipment to other networks or sell it directly.

Given that the transition is not yet complete, participating in Ethereum mining still requires the use of special hardware (such as a GPU or ASIC). To make substantial profits, you must customize your mining rig and find mining farms with low electricity prices. In addition, you need to create an Ethereum wallet and configure the corresponding mining software. This all consumes a lot of time and money. Before participating in mining, please carefully consider whether you can handle various challenges. (Mining is strictly prohibited in China, please do not try it yourself)

ProgPow represents Programmed Proof of Work. This is an extension of the Ethereum mining algorithm Ethash, designed to make GPUs more competitive than ASICs.

In the Bitcoin and Ethereum communities, ASIC resistance has been a hotly contested topic for years.topic of discussion. In the Bitcoin network, ASICs have become the main mining force.

In Ethereum, ASIC is not mainstream, and a considerable number of miners still use GPU. However, this will soon change as more and more companies introduce Ethereum ASIC mining rigs to the market. However, what are the problems with ASICs?

On the one hand, ASIC significantly weakens the decentralization of the network. If GPU miners are unable to make a profit and have to stop mining, the hash rate will eventually be concentrated in the hands of a few miners. In addition, the development cost of ASIC chips is quite expensive, and only a handful of companies have the development capabilities and resources. This current situation may lead to the concentration of the Ethereum mining industry in the hands of a few companies, forming a certain degree of industry monopoly.

ProgPow’s integration has been controversial since 2018. Some people believe that it is beneficial to the healthy development of the Ethereum ecosystem. Others are opposed, arguing that it could lead to a hard fork. With the arrival of proof-of-stake, it remains to be seen whether ProgPoW can be applied to the network.

Ethereum and Bitcoin are the same, both are open source platforms. Anyone can participate in protocol development or build applications based on the protocol. In fact, Ethereum is currently the largest developer community in the blockchain field.

Mastering Ethereum by Andreas Antonopoulos and Gavin Wood, as well as the developer resources launched by Ethereum.org, are ideal starting points for new developers.

The concept of smart contracts was first proposed in the 1990s. Its application in blockchain brings a new set of challenges. Solidity, proposed by Gavin Wood in 2014, has become the main programming language for developing Ethereum smart contracts, and its syntax is similar to Java, JavaScript and C++.

Essentially, using the Solidity language, developers can write instructions that can be parsed by the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) when broken down. You can learn more about how it works via the Solidity GitHub.

In fact, Solidity language is not the only choice for Ethereum developers. Vyper is also a popular development language, and its syntax is closer to Python.

6. What is Ethereum/Ethereum

The English name of Ethereum is Ethereum, or ETH for short. It is a virtual investment currency that has been hotly speculated recently. It is known as the world's second largest digital currency by market capitalization, second only to Bitcoin..

Ethereum is a digital token of Ethereum, because the openness of Ethereum requires the use of tokens - Ethereum ETH to support applications. Ethereum can also be traded on the trading platform. Simply put, Ethereum is a platform and a programming language that enable developers to build and launch the next generation of distributed applications.
Ethereum can be used for programming, guarantees and transactions. It can also be used to organize voting, domain name sales, financial trading platforms, online crowdfunding, management companies,
formulate contracts and most The protocol can also integrate intelligent assets of hardware.

The price of Ethereum has soared not only due to the promotion of the Ethereum community, but more importantly, virtual currency investors are looking for investment products to replace Bitcoin.

Bitcoin is subject to the supervision of the domestic central bank and a series of problems such as being rejected for ETF listing have caused investors to be pessimistic about the prospect of Bitcoin. At this time, the emergence and promotion of Ethereum are being favored by these virtual currency investors!

BtcTrade platform (Bitcoin trading network) www.btctrade.com, as the largest and most reliable trading platform in China, launched Ethereum trading as early as November. When Ethereum was launched, it was around 50 yuan, and now it has risen to 300 yuan, which is amazing! What is the prospect of Ethereum ETH? It remains to be seen whether it can gain such attention like Bitcoin!

7. How many account addresses can an Ethereum node have at most?

How many account addresses can an Ethereum node have at most?
A: Generally there is only one account address, otherwise errors will occur! The blockchain itself is unique. If there are multiple account addresses on one node, it violates the fundamentals of the blockchain!

8. Understand Ethereum-ETH2.0 in one article, is it worth holding for a long time?

I have been reading information about the London upgrade of ETH in the past few days. Let’s have a brief chat. In the world of cryptocurrency, whether it is investment institutions, blockchain application developers, mining machine manufacturers, or individual investors, hardware suppliers, game industry practitioners, etc., when it comes to Ethereum, there are more or less some learn.

On the one hand, it depends on the wealth creation effect of the Ethereum token ETH itself. Since the initial issuance in 2014, the return on investment has exceeded 7,400 times.

On the other hand, Ethereum, as the most widely used decentralized application programming platform, has attracted countless developers to develop applications on it. These applications not only generate huge commercial value, but also bring more users to ETH as the DEFI ecology, NFT ecology, and DAO ecology flourish.

As the "London Upgrade Plan" approaches, ETH has once again attracted everyone's attention.

What exactly is Ethereum 2.0? What upgrades are included? How is the progress so far?

What impact will the arrival of Ethereum 2.0 have on the decentralized applications of the existing Ethereum ecosystem?

Is ETH worth continuing to invest? I believe you will make your own judgment after reading it.

If building an application is like building a house, then Ethereum provides modules such as walls, roofs, and floors. Users only need to build the house like building blocks. As a result, the cost and speed of building applications on Ethereum have been greatly improved. The emergence of Ethereum quickly attracted a large number of developers to enter the world of Ethereum to write various decentralized applications, which greatly enriched people's demand for decentralized application scenarios.

Schematic diagram of Ethereum application development model

Ethereum and ETH

Cryptocurrencies in the existing market are only single tokens when blockchain technology is applied in a certain scenario.

Ethereum is no exception. Its full project name is "Next Generation Smart Contract and Decentralized Application Platform", and Ether (Ether) is its The native cryptocurrency, referred to as ETH.

In addition to being used for effective exchange with various types of digital assets, ETH also provides a mechanism to pay transaction fees, that is, we are now doing on-chain operations The GAS fee paid at the time. The emergence of the GAS fee mechanism not only protects applications created on the Ethereum network from being abused by malicious programs, but also because GAS income belongs to miners, allowing more users to participate in the accounting of the Ethereum network and become miners, further Maintained Ethereum network security and ecological development.

Unlike BTC, ETH does not use the SHA256 mining algorithm, preventing the entire mining ecosystem from being dominated by ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) mining machines. As a result, the systemic risks caused by most of the computing power being controlled by centralized institutions.

Ethereum initially adopted PoW (Proof of Work)'s proof-of-work mechanism, people need to pass proof of work to obtain handling fee returns. We often hear that miners use graphics cards to mine, and what they do is POW proof of work. The more graphics cards and the greater the computing power, the greater the workload and the higher the income.

Currently, the total computing power of the entire Ethereum network is approximately 870.26 TH/s. Compared with the consumer-grade graphics cards we are familiar with, the NVIDIA RTX 3080 graphics card calculates The computing power of the Ethereum network is approximately 92-93 MH/s, which is equivalent to the total computing power of 9.36 million 3080 graphics cards.

The Ethereum white paper clearly mentions that the ledger mechanism of PoW Proof of Work will be upgraded to the ledger mechanism of POS (Proof of Stake) Proof of Stake.

ETH economic model

Unlike the total amount of BTC, which is 21 million, ETH’s There is no upper limit on the total amount, but an additional issuance is added every year based on the amount of ETH in the first pre-sale, and the additional issuance amount is 0.26x (x is the total amount of the sale).

But don’t worry that ETH will continue to inflate indefinitely. In the long run, the number of additional coins issued each year is roughly the same as the number of coins lost each year due to death or carelessness. , ETH’s “money supply growth rate” is approaching zero.

The ETH distribution model includes early buyers, early contribution value, long-term donations and miner income. The specific distribution ratio is as follows.

Now, 60,102,216 * 0.26 = 15,626,576 ETH will be mined by miners every year. After converting to PoS, the annual ETH output will decrease.

Currently, the total amount of ETH circulating in the market is approximately 116,898,848 pieces, with a total market value of approximately US$275.9 billion.

Development history of Ethereum

1. Border stage (2015): online The first fork was carried out shortly afterwards to adjust the difficulty of future mining. This version is in the experimental stage and the technology is not yet mature. Initially, only a small number of developers can participate in mining. The smart contract is only for developers to develop applications and does not involve users.The Ethereum network is in its infancy.

Frontier phase ETH price: $1.24.

2. Home stage (2016): The Ethereum mainnet conducted its second fork in March 2016 and released the first stable version . This version is the first mature official version, using 100% PoW proof and introducing a difficulty bomb. With the increase in the number of blockchains, the mining difficulty increases exponentially, the performance of the network is greatly improved, and the Ethereum project has also entered a rapid development stage. growth period. In the "Homeland" version, the famous "The DAO attack" also occurred. Ethereum was hard-forked by the community vote into two chains, Ethereum (ETH) and Ethereum Classic (ETC). Buterin stood on ETH's side. side.

Home Phase ETH Price: $12.50.

3. Urban phase (2017~2019): The development of the city is divided into three phases, and the upgrade is divided into three bifurcations, namely in 2017 “Byzantium” in October, “Constantinople” at the end of February 2019, and “Istanbul” in December 2019. These upgrades mainly improve the writing of smart contracts, improve security, add difficulty bombs, and modify some core architecture to assist in the future transition from proof-of-work to proof-of-stake.

In the urban stage, the Ethereum network has officially shown its power and officially entered the mature stage. Smart contracts allow cryptocurrencies on different chains to trade with each other. ERC-20 is also the standard for token issuance in 2017. Thousands of projects are raising funds on the Ethereum network, which is called "Initial Coin Offering (ICO)" "I believe that many old people in the currency circle were brought in by the wealth-making effect of ICO at that time. By 2019, with the rise of the DeFi ecosystem, financial products have officially become the largest industry on the Ethereum chain.

Metropolis ETH price: $151.06.

4. Quiet phase (2020-2023): Similar to the three-phase development of the city, the quiet phase is currently expected to be divided into three branches: Berlin (completed ), London (coming soon), and the third fork later. The "quiet" stage, also known as "Ethereum 2.0", is the final stage of the project. Ethereum will officially shift from the proof-of-work method to the proof-of-stake method, and develop a second-layer expansion plan to improve the operating efficiency of the entire network.

The quiet phase can be said to be the culmination of the Ethereum network. If the first three phases are just an experimental platform for Ethereum’s vision to be demonstrated, the quiet phase After that, Ethereum will officially become a complete entity. It will not only have complete ecological applications, super-fast processing speed, and the coordinated development of many networks, but also the PoS mechanism will be very energy-saving, which truly represents the symbol of the gradual maturity of blockchain technology.

Tranquility Phase ETH Price: The Berlin phase completed on April 15, 2021, the price on that day was $2,454.

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Ethereum Ecology

Ethereum’s ecological development, subordinate division It can be divided into two major categories: one is the construction of Ethereum network ecological applications, and the other is the construction of Ethereum network expansion. The two integrate with each other and achieve each other. Applications need a more robust and powerful network as a carrier, and the network needs application scenarios with complete functions to serve users.

Let’s talk about the application ecosystem first. We can divide the Ethereum ecosystem into the following categories:

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1. Decentralized self-made organization (DAO) ecology

What is a decentralized self-made organization? Let’s take the familiar Bitcoin as an example: Bitcoin’s current market value is more than 700 billion U.S. dollars, ranking ninth in the global asset market value category. However, Bitcoin is not a product released by a certain company, and no specific company recruits personnel to maintain it. Everything that exists in Bitcoin originates from the distributed organization spontaneously formed by Bitcoin holders and Bitcoin miners. They plan the development route of Bitcoin through voting and voluntarily participate in maintaining the Bitcoin program and network. This is simply because as long as they have In Bitcoin, everyone is a beneficiary of the construction of the Bitcoin network, and all maintenance stems from their own interests.

The invention and successful operation of Bitcoin broke through the company's business structure that was created by the Dutch and has been popular for more than 400 years, and created a new, seamless An organizational, globally distributed business model, this is DAO.

Going back to Ethereum, Ethereum’s DAO can be written by smart contracts and user-defined application scenarios. To put it simply, we stipulate the program execution conditions and execution scope. In the real world, as long as the set conditions are triggered, the program will automatically execute, and all processes will be executed in Ethereum.Decentralized public verification is carried out on the Internet and does not require manual or any third-party organization confirmation.

The Ethereum DAO ecosystem has evolved into many business scenarios. Some charities use DAO to establish an open and transparent donation and usage mechanism, and some venture capital institutions use DAO to establish fairness. Allocated risk funds.

Many projects in the Ethereum ecosystem adopt DAO autonomy. Representative projects include: Uniswap, AAVE, MakerDAO, Compound, Decred, Dash, etc.

2. Decentralized Finance (DEFI) Ecosystem

In the traditional business world Here, if we need to borrow money, save money, or buy stocks of a certain company, or make corporate loans or financing, as long as we are conducting financial activities, we cannot do without dealing with financial institutions such as banks, securities institutions, and accounting firms.

In a decentralized world, the essence of the blockchain is a large open ledger that collects everyone’s transaction records. We can trace back every transaction very easily. For every transaction that has occurred at a wallet address, the balance information of any wallet address can be queried to evaluate the assets in the wallet address.

For example: The country with the most expensive personal loans in the world is India. The mortgage interest rate for young people in India is currently 8.8%, and the highest has ever been 20%. ; Correspondingly, the country with the lowest personal deposit interest rate in the world is Japan. In order to encourage people to consume, the Japanese government has kept bank deposit interest rates negative for a long time. Japanese people not only receive no interest on bank deposits, but also pay to the bank. Storage fee. In theory, if the Japanese lend their savings to Indians, both parties can maximize their benefits, but in real life such a scenario is difficult to happen. First, every country has foreign exchange controls. It is not easy for Japanese people to give money to Indians. Second, it is difficult for Japanese people to evaluate the creditworthiness of Indians. There is no unified standard for everyone. If the money lent cannot be returned, , we cannot lose profits but still suffer losses.

But in a decentralized world, such things are much simpler.

If an Indian has Bitcoin in his wallet address, we can use smart contracts and the Indian will pledge his Bitcoin into it. According to Bitcoin at the time At the price, the system automatically gives Indians a credit line, and Indians can use this line to borrow money from Japanese people, andSpecify the repayment period and interest rate. If the Indians default, the contract will automatically deduct the Bitcoins pledged by the Indians, giving priority to protecting Japan's rights. In this way, the Japanese do not have to worry about safety issues and can enjoy the benefits without worry, and the Indians also have more money as working capital.

This example is a simple application of decentralized finance. In fact, this is the principle of our participation in DEFI mining and pledge financial management - of course the actual application of the algorithm The scene is much more complicated.

DEFI can be divided into many tracks according to different scenarios, such as stable coins, oracles, AMM exchanges, derivatives, aggregators, etc.

Representative projects of DEFI include: Dai, Augur, Chainlink, WBTC, 0x, Balance, Liquidity, etc.

3. Non-Fungible Token (NFT) Ecology

World Famous Paintings "Mona Lisa", only Leonardo da Vinci's original version can be displayed in the Louvre Museum in France. Even if modern technology can reproduce it with extremely fine details, the imitations do not have the collection value of the original version.

This is the application scenario of NFT. NFTs are tokens that we can use to represent ownership of unique items. They allow us to uniquely tokenize real-life things like art, collectibles, and even real estate. While the files (works) themselves are infinitely replicable, the tokens representing them are trackable on-chain and provide buyers with proof of ownership.

Compared with the dual delivery of physical copyright and property rights in reality, NFT only requires the delivery of the unique token describing the item. NFT works are often stored in distributed storage networks such as IPFS. They can be taken at any time and will never be lost. In addition, the delivery is simple and convenient, and soon attracted a large number of players and investors to collect and resell. The emergence of NFT has also provided artists with new opportunities. revenue model.

Similar to DEFI ecology, NFT ecology has also produced different tracks according to different application scenarios. Currently, the more popular tracks include NFT trading platform, NFT game platform, NFT art platform, a financial platform that combines NFT and DEFI.

Representative NFT projects include: CryptoKitties, CryptoPunks, Meebits, Opensea, Rally, Axie Infinity, Enjin Coin, The Sandbox and more.

4. Standard Token Protocol (ERC-20) Ecology

and NFT Non-fungible tokens correspond to fungible tokens. For example, the RMB we use is a homogeneous token. We can use RMB for value exchange. Even if the serial numbers are different, its value will not be affected. If the denomination is the same, different banknote serial numbers will make no difference to the holder.

BTC, ETH and all the cryptocurrencies we are familiar with are fungible tokens. There is no difference between one Bitcoin and another Bitcoin of the same type, with the same specifications and uniformity. In a transaction, it is only necessary to pay attention to the number of tokens handed over, whose value may change depending on the time interval of the exchange, but its essence does not change.

Ethereum’s ERC-20 is the standard protocol that defines this kind of token. Anyone can use the ERC-20 protocol and publish it through a few lines of code. Own cryptocurrency on the Ethereum network.

Currently, there are millions of token types running on the Ethereum network. Most of the projects mentioned above have also been released on the Ethereum network. Own fungible token.

Representative projects of ERC-20 include: USDT, USDC, WBTC, etc.

Ethereum network scalability

Let’s first introduce a concept: blockchain The impossible triangle means that no matter what method we use, we cannot achieve scalability, decentralization, and security at the same time. We can only get two of the three.

This is actually easy to understand. If we want to decentralize and secure, we need more nodes to participate in the network for verification, which will lead to an increase in the number of verifiers. Network efficiency is reduced and scalability is reduced. Network performance construction is to find a balance between the three.

Using data as an example, Bitcoin can currently handle 7 transfers/second, Ethereum can handle 25 transfers/second, and VISA can handle an average of 4,500 transfers/second. The peak value reaches tens of thousands of transactions per second. This kind of business officeThe difference in processing capabilities can be simply understood as the "throughput" gap. If you want to improve throughput, you need to expand the business processing capabilities of the blockchain, which is called scalability.

According to different optimization methods, Ethereum network performance expansion solutions can be divided into:

1. Layer 1 on-chain extension, an extension solution where all transactions are retained on Ethereum, with higher security.

The essence of on-chain expansion is to improve the Ethereum main chain itself, so that the entire system has higher scalability and operating efficiency. There are two general methods, either changing the consensus protocol, for example, ETH will change from PoW to PoS; or using sharding technology and optimization methods to make the network more efficient.

2. Layer 2 off-chain expansion, layering solutions for each scenario separately on top of the Ethereum protocol, with better scalability.

Off-chain expansion can be understood as taking calculations, transactions and other business processing scenarios outside the Ethereum main chain for calculation, and finally transmitting the calculated results back to the main chain. Chain, the main chain only reflects the final result without caring about the process. In this way, no matter how complex the application is, it will not have an impact on the main chain.

We do not need to understand the specific technical implementation, we only need to know: Compared with the Layer 1 solution, the Layer 2 solution network will not interfere with the underlying blockchain protocol. It can undertake most of the computing work for Layer 1, thereby reducing the burden on the main network and improving network business processing efficiency. It is currently recognized as a better expansion solution.

Ethereum 2.0

Finally talking about Ethereum 2.0, back to the topic.

By reviewing the development history of Ethereum, Ethereum 2.0 is not a new project, it is just the last stage of the development process of Ethereum, and it will be dominated by the entire Ethereum Multiple teams in the ecosystem work together to make Ethereum more scalable, secure and sustainable, and eventually become mainstream and serve all mankind.

ETH2 construction goals:

1. More scalable. Supports 1000 transactions per second to enableApps are faster and cheaper to use.

2. More secure. Ethereum has become more secure against all forms of attacks.

3. More sustainable. Improve network performance while reducing energy consumption and better protecting the environment.

The most important change is that ETH2 will upgrade from the PoW (Proof of Work) proof-of-work mechanism used by ETH1 to the POS (Proof of Stake) proof-of-stake mechanism. . Instead of using computing power as a verification method, the amount of pledged cryptocurrency is used as a verification method. Miners can mine without a graphics card, which not only saves time and electricity costs, but also improves the utilization of ETH, which is very similar to earning interest by depositing money in a bank.

The main technology used by ETH2 is sharding and layering technology to expand the entire network.

The ETH2 upgrade will be divided into three phases:

1. Phase 0 (Ongoing): Creation and merging of the beacon chain. The beacon chain is the main chain of ETH2, just like the human brain, and is the basis for ETH2 to operate.

2. Phase 1 (expected to be 2022): Creation and application of shard chains. When the beacon chain is merged with ETH1, it will enter the development stage of the shard chain. The shard chain can be understood as splitting and storing the entire data of the ETH2 main chain according to certain rules, and establishing a new chain separately to share the data pressure on the main chain. The current plan is to establish 64 shard chains.

For example, from Beijing to Shanghai, the original means of transportation was only one highway, and all vehicles needed to run on it, which would make it very crowded; now Through sharding technology, more modes of transportation such as high-speed trains and airplanes are available, and the diverted vehicles arrive at the same time faster. This is the role of the sharding chain.

Schematic diagram of the interaction between shard chain and main chain

3. Phase 2 (expected to be 2023): Integration of the entire network functions. At this stage, the functions of the entire system begin to be fully integrated, the functions of the shard chain will become more powerful, and new processing mechanisms will begin to support the creation of accounts, smart contracts, development tools, new ecological applications, etc.

This stage is the final form of the Ethereum network. Network performance has been comprehensively improved and ecological applications have exploded. But to serve all mankind, ETH2’s 1,000 transaction efficiency per second is obviously far from enough, and Ethereum will continue to optimize for its goals.

What impact does ETH2 have on everyone?

1. For Ethereum ecosystem developers. When deploying an application, ETH2 needs to choose which shard network the application will be deployed on. The reason for this difference is that cross-shard communication is not synchronized, which means that developers need to make different combinations according to their own development plans.

2. For ETH holders. The data of ETH2 and ETH1 are completely synchronized, and the tokens will not change. You can continue to use your current wallet address to hold ETH.

3. For miners. Although PoW and PoS will continue to exist in parallel for some time, it is expected that the output of PoW mining machines will be less and less, and investment in PoW mining machines should begin to be reduced and start to shift to the PoS mechanism.

4. For users. ETH2 is faster, has lower transaction fees, and the network experience will be very good. The only thing worth noting is that since Dapps are deployed on different sharded networks, you may need to manually select the application’s network options.

Is ETH worth investing in?

ETH is the benchmark for markets other than BTC. A clear understanding of ETH2 is very helpful for us to understand other blockchain projects and the secondary market.

Let’s briefly summarize a few points:

1. Through Ethereum projects From the analysis, we can clearly see that after Bitcoin, the development history of the Ethereum project is the development history of the current blockchain application ecosystem. Regardless of DEFI ecology, NFT ecology, DAO ecology or token, contract, and protocol ecology, it was actually foreseen when Ethereum released the white paper, and the projects that emerged later were all verified around Ethereum.

2. Among the co-founders of Ethereum, only Buterin is still contributing to the cause of Ethereum, but this does not affectImpact on the prosperity of Ethereum. The initial team of Ethereum just created it, and subsequent development is the result of the joint efforts of the community, developers, miners and users. The current Ethereum is no longer the thinking of one person, it is the joint crystallization of all Ethereum ecological participants. It belongs to all mankind.

3. Ethereum has been developing along the established development trajectory in the past few years, although there was a crisis midway and Ethereum was "dead" Hundreds of times, Ethereum has still developed tenaciously and has a prosperous ecosystem. It will take two or three years for ETH2 to be implemented, and there are many variables in the process, such as other public chains taking the lead. However, it is foreseeable that Ethereum after ETH2 will be more robust.

4. Do not hold on to any false propositions that BTC will die and the blockchain industry will disappear. BTC and ETH allow us to see the existence of a new unorganized business model that breaks through the original company organizational structure. This business model is obviously more in line with the development needs of this era, no matter whether the project initiating team is present or not, no matter what the governments of various countries do Suppression, as long as technology contributes to mankind, it will be maintained by people's voluntary organizations. Blockchain technology is a revolution.

5. With the launch of ETH2, the parallel PoW rewards and PoS rewards in the short term may cause the total inflation rate of ETH to surge in the short term. In the long term, the inflation rate of ETH will remain unchanged. maintain balance. Coupled with ETH's own ecology and application scenarios, ETH is worth investing in. Currently, there is no possibility of other public chains replacing the Ethereum public chain. The launch of ETH2 will even cause a "siphon effect" to other public chains. The chain is unified.

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9. What is the lowest price of Ethereum?

Ethereum has experienced a period of decline in the past two years. After the bear market in the currency circle, the currency price has now fallen to more than 900 yuan, and the current downward trend continues. Shorting Ethereum is a better trading strategy now. Digital currency exchanges that currently allow short selling include: Binance, Huobi, and Bitnet.